Realising its demise in the age of European imperialism and colonialism, the Ottoman dynasty set out to reinvent itself. Caught between the West and their Eastern heritage, redefining its identity and what it means to be Ottoman in a modernised context without compromising its cultural characteristics became an imperial priority. When a state in decline acknowledges its weakness against its foes, it often resorts to mimicry. Inspired by the Qur’anic verse (7:34): "For each community there is an appointed term. When their time arrives, they can neither delay it for a moment, nor could they advance it", the medieval Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun’s (1332-1406) theories on cyclical history and imitation are useful for analysis.

Furthermore, not only did cultural mimicry occurred as civilisations declined, but there was always a desire to imitate the ‘Other’ from a position of power. Europeans began imitating Ottoman visual culture since the 16th century and this practise persisted into the 18th century, when Europe gained technological superiority.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Oriental Imaginings, Occidental Refashioning: Turquerie, the Tulip Age, and Ottoman Modernity, 1683-1867 (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2023), 5-12.

The two-part podcast episodes on Atatürk and Islam seek to illuminate the contributions of this remarkable visionary of the 20th century. Nevertheless, the primary emphasis of the podcasts will be on Ataturk's role in reshaping the religious culture in Turkey by providing his citizens with a distinct Turkish-Muslim identity. To achieve this, he undertookthe task of comprehending the Qur’an and its messages to humanity—encouraging the use of intellect and reasoning in the pursuit of knowledge to progress towards enlightenment and modernity.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in theHistoriography of Islam from the Medieval Period to the Modern Era ~ Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures? (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 149-212.

The two-part podcast episodes on Atatürk and Islam seeks to illuminate the contributions of this remarkable visionary of the 20th century. Nevertheless, the primary emphasis of the podcasts will be on Ataturk's role in reshaping the religious culture in Turkey by providing his citizens with a distinct Turkish-Muslim identity. To achieve this, he undertook the task of comprehending the Qur’an and its messages to humanity—encouraging the use of intellect and reasoning in the pursuit of knowledge to progress towards enlightenment and modernity.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in the Historiography of Islam from the Medieval Period to the Modern Era ~ Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures?(Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 149-212.

During the decline of the nineteenth century, Europe rose to a position of dominance worldwide. The European perspective on the Orient underwent a transformation, shifting frommedieval Mediterranean perceptions of being heretically confined" to being seen as barbaric and exotic, and eventually as despotic. The Orient became marginalised and seen as a forgotten entity, a survivor of history. However, one man stood in the way of total European domination of the Orient.

Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), the sole individual who obstructed European imperialism in Turkey, emerged as a revered figure among his compatriots and a source of inspiration for countlessMuslims residing in the Middle East and India, who were subjected to British and French dominion. By triumphing over Britain and France, Kemal propelled Turkey to become the inaugural nation to overthrow European imperialism in theaftermath of the war.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in the Historiography of Islam from the Medieval Period to theModern Era: Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures? (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 177-212.

The Occident’s fascination with the Orient, which, for many centuries Ottoman Istanbul represented, continued into the twentieth century with the introduction of the Orient Express in 1883, which ran services from Paris to Istanbul for the next 80 years (1883-1977), briefly pausing during World War I.

The Orient Express provided European writers the means to explore exotic world of the Ottoman Orient. The Orient in Christie’s novels serves as a backdrop without contributing to plot development. Using it as a backdrop to her setting, Christie exoticises the Orient for the Westerners. Since Mesopotamia was a British Mandate from 1918 to 1932, Agatha Christie’s Western characters are merely observers who view everything through Eurocentric prisms.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in the Historiography of Islam from the Medieval Period to the Modern Era ~ Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures? (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 137-144.

The era of new imperialism and European global dominance in the 18th and 19th centuries aimed to eliminate the geographical divide that had long separated Islam and Europe since the Middle Ages. The intention was to educate the "Other" in accordance with Western ideals, thereby reviving the ideological contrast between the two civilisations once colonialism came to an end in the 20th century.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in the Historiography of Islam from the Medieval Period to the Modern Era ~ Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures? (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 115-136.

Edward Said's book, Orientalism, clearly expresses the idea that European dominance and understanding of the Other stemmed from a sense of superiority. This concept gave rise to Orientalism in the nineteenth century. The term Orientalism was first used in English in 1779 and later in French in 1799. Nevertheless, it is crucial to recognise that European awareness of the Other dates back to the Middle Ages, predating the nineteenth century. 


Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in the Historiography of Islam from the Medieval Period to the Modern Era ~ Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures? (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 105-114.

Over the past five centuries, the Western world has undergone a significant transformation, beginning with the idea of absolute sovereignty in God, then moving to monarchy and the sovereign nation, and finally progressing to the empowerment of the people through democracy, ultimately leading to the sovereignty of the individual.

Furthermore, this period witnessed the observing of the Other from the lens of the Enlightenment. As the Ottoman threat diminished, the Europeans endeavoured to comprehend the Ottoman Empire from a standpoint of its emerging dominance over the 'Other'. Throughout the Enlightenment period in the eighteenth century, the Ottomans continued to captivate the attention of European intellectuals and philosophers such as Boulainvilliers, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Gibbon, evoking both admiration and aversion. The criticism of Ottoman society and culture highlighted everything contrary to European 'values'. The emergence of the term 'despot' and the association of exoticism with the Orient further solidified anti-Turk/anti-Islamic sentiments.

Source:

M. Mustafa, Perceptions of the Other: Eurocentrism in the Historiography of Islam from the Medieval Period to the Modern Era: Clash of Civilisations or Dialogue of Cultures? (Sydney: Centre for Ottoman Renaissance and Civilisation, 2025), 83-103.