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  • How Micro-Credentials Can Conquer the Skills Gap

    How Micro-Credentials Can Conquer the Skills Gap
    2023/05/09
    In this article, Danny King offers insight into how stackable micro-credentials can help employers upskill their teams while steering employees toward their individual career goals.According to a 2021 study, over 80% of Scottish employees had never heard the term “micro-credential”. And while a surge in skills-based hiring has likely caused that percentage to shrink, for many leaders, the true value of these stackable skill credentials lies shrouded in mystery.A micro-credential is a single credential representing proficiency in a given skill, typically after a single course. When stacked with other similar credentials, micro-credentials can be accumulated together, roll into more comprehensive badges or certifications, and even help build long-term career pathways.In 2022, 78% of UK organisations experienced a decline in output, profitability and/or growth due to a lack of available skills, indicating a dire need for deeper investment in skills development. But while corporate training programs abound, the flexibility inherent to micro-credentials makes them especially attractive. Workers can complete courses at a reasonable pace without jeopardising day-to-day work, and with stackable micro-credentials, it becomes easier for leaders to rank individual proficiencies and monitor overall skills growth in the workforce.In the Learning & Development space, we speak often about “bridging the skills gap.” But no bridge is built without a surefire blueprint. Thus, the key is to help each individual create their distinct plan for career success. By this logic, we aren’t so much “bridging” the gap as we are enabling employees to find their own way across.I break this process down into four phases of the learning journey:Choosing the DestinationWhen choosing to pursue a micro-credential on their own, rather than under a company mandate, learners typically have two goals to consider: personal goals and organisational goals. The former is self-explanatory: They take courses related to their individual career goals, and if they’re outside the domain of their current position, they may have to fund them themselves. The latter, however, is where we’re going to focus. Organisational learning goals may be related to a role one wants in the company – i.e. “I want to learn SEO so I can create better company blog content and improve our lead generation” – or, they could be part of a larger effort to upskill the workforce in a diversity of ways.To this end, corporate L&D programs should employ micro-credentials to allow employees to pursue both personal and organisational goals at the same time. This can happen through a subscription to a learning platform that gives employees access to vast catalogue of micro-credentialed courses, or a learning stipend that empowers workers to pursue courses outside of their assigned training modules. In order to optimise costs and save time, organisations should do their diligence to identify overlaps between employees’ personal learning interests and the needs of the company. Employers can conduct surveys and solicit feedback from managers about not only employees’ current skill levels and performance, but also their interests and goals.Most importantly, before anyone sets out on their next learning journey, organisations must ensure that the micro-credentials they provide, whether through a third party or internally, are secure and verifiable, so employees get the premium value out of their experience. They should choose micro-credentials that offer a digital badge or certificate as immutable proof of a learner’s accomplishments. This will prove useful to both internal teams and as a means of external marketing of your skilled workforce.Setting CourseWhen employees and organisations have their goals in harmony, the next step is to determine what courses these intrepid learners must take to reach these goals.
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    4 分
  • Adding ‘world’ into WorldSkills UK – establishing an international focus for standards

    Adding ‘world’ into WorldSkills UK – establishing an international focus for standards
    2023/05/09
    Adding ‘world’ into WorldSkills UK – establishing an international focus for standardsAs he prepares to step down from his role as Chief Executive at WorldSkills UK after seven years, Neil Bentley-Gockmann reflects on how WorldSkills UK is using international benchmarking to define excellence in technical education and apprenticeships, so more young professionals, from all backgrounds, can succeed.The announcement that the UK had just won its 20 th medal at the WorldSkills 2017 Competition , was barely audible as cheers sounded out across Abu Dhabi’s Etihad Park. For me, that was my defining moment as Chief Executive. A ‘light bulb’ instant at my first international competition, when I realised that Team UK’s success was more than just a medal haul. It could be used to help better prepare more young people, educators and employers to succeed.With this in mind, I laid out a new vision for WorldSkills UK, rooted in our knowledge of how other countries use skills policy for economic development, to champion a world-class skills economy in the UK. The skills economy is a concept in which governments, employers, parents and young people recognise being highly skilled as a valuable currency for success. It also acknowledges the potential of technical skills to power economic growth.I wanted to establish an organisation where we always tried to lead from the front. I wanted us to be an ‘incubator of new ideas’ and in setting out the new vision I realised we had to focus on three key areas.LESSONS FROM GLOBAL BEST PRACTICE – CENTRE OF EXCELLENCEFirstly, we needed to create a vehicle to effectively disseminate our learnings from our international benchmarking at WorldSkills. Born out of my experience at WorldSkills Abu Dhabi in 2017 and founded on research undertaken by the University of Oxford, we launched the Centre of Excellence in 2020 at the height of the pandemic. At a time, when our day-to-day work was paused, we had the opportunity to innovate and I will always be grateful to David Gallagher of NCFE for believing and investing in the concept , during what was an uncertain time for us all.We were amazed by the level of interest from the FE sector in this new programme and to date 49 institutions are part of the Centre of Excellence, with 31 situated in the government’s levelling up priority regions. Mainstreaming best practice and world-class standards from the WorldSkills global network, the Centre is helping institutions across the UK raise standards and embed excellence across curriculums. In England, the Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education is interested in the impact of this work, and we are actively linking our insights to the development of standards in apprenticeships and other qualifications. Ofsted has also recognised the value of competition-based training in their education inspection framework in England, citing their value in demonstrating outstanding behaviours and attitudes.It is fantastic to hear that 83% of members have said that it has motivated them to make positive changes to improve their teaching and training practice. We are working with NCFE to launch the next phase of the Centre of Excellence and are inviting ITPs and Higher Education Institutes to apply to help ensure more organisations and young people across the four nations can benefit from our international benchmarking.HELPING TO MEET RAPIDLY CHANGING EMPLOYER NEEDS TO SUPPORT ECONOMIC GROWTHSecondly, we repositioned our programmes, informed by diagnostic research, to focus on the future skills needed to help power the economy, in line with priorities set by governments across the UK at a time of fast moving technological change.That’s why we are focusing more of our programmes on STEM skills at higher levels in areas such as industry 4.0, cyber security, industrial robotics, additive manufacturing and renewable energy. We have already seen international success, winning the bronze medal in industry 4.0 at last year’s W...
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    6 分
  • Securing Education: How Resource-Strapped Colleges Can Fight Back Against Cyber-Attacks

    Securing Education: How Resource-Strapped Colleges Can Fight Back Against Cyber-Attacks
    2023/05/10
    In this article, Andy Le Grice outlines the challenges that UK colleges currently face in securing their institutions against cyber-attack, and the potential steps they can take to effectively improve their security posture within the tight constraints of the Further Education sector.It’s no wonder that cyber security is front of mind for much of the Education sector. According to the government’s recently-published Cyber Security Breaches Survey 2023, more than four in five UK colleges have identified breaches or attacks within the last 12 months, with roughly a third reporting such incidents occurring on a weekly basis.This is clearly an unsustainable situation, and one that’s partially due to the low security posture that colleges have traditionally held. However, as resources and personnel continue to be stretched at many institutions, it’s not a problem with an immediately obvious solution.Strengthening Cybersecurity in Further EducationAs a technology consultancy specialising in the public sector, we at ITGL are very aware of the tight budget constraints that colleges face, and how the continuing global deficit in cyber professionals has resulted in a skills gap across the industry.To help bolster the security posture of the Further Education sector, we‘re holding a free digital event on 18th May 2023, highlighting the most common and urgent vulnerabilities present in institutions’ defences, as well as demonstrating best practices and proactive steps that colleges can take to better secure their networks and infrastructure, ensuring that their limited resources are managed to receive the best possible return on investment.Colleges are, by design, very open institutions. On any given day, they will be providing network access to hundreds – or thousands – of students, faculty, guests, and staff. This ease of access is vital for the day-to-day operation of the college, but left unmanaged it can also leave them open to the possibility of attacks that originate from inside their networks.Network access controls can be implemented across an institution’s networks to directly combat this; users and devices can be authenticated and authorised before they are granted access to the network at any level, ensuring that only trusted users can access more sensitive resources. At the same time, users without the same level of authorisation – such as students and guests – can be filtered onto a more public-facing network designed for such devices.Posture checks can continuously be made on devices, ensuring that compromised devices are kept off sensitive networks, while improving the security posture of those devices that are connected, by requiring that firewalls are enabled, operating systems and browsers are updated, and endpoint security is active.The Threat of Phishing in Further EducationWhile colleges often aren’t seen as high-value targets for complex or sophisticated cyber-attacks, the frequency with which they experience an attempted breach or attack shows that a sufficiently low-security posture can be reason enough for outside threats to act. Phishing is so prevalent in modern life that its presence in Further Education is no surprise – in the previously referenced Cyber Security Breaches Survey, 91% of colleges that had identified breaches or attacks reported that phishing was among the methods used.The positive side of this news is that, because the vast majority of phishing occurs via email, some basic steps can make a substantial difference in this regard. By utilising best practices when setting up an institution’s email services (such as implementing the DMARC email standard, and the application of threat intelligence and content analysis), the volume of malware and phishing emails that make it to a user’s inbox can be cut drastically. When combined with consistent, clear end-user training and good cyber awareness, the effectiveness of phishing as an attack vector is diminished further.Of course, we recognise that all o...
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    4 分
  • Reforming Post-16 Education

    Reforming Post-16 Education
    2023/05/10
    The recent publication of the Education Select Committee’s report into reform of post-16 education deserves careful consideration. In this article, Simon Ashworth sets out his thoughts on the report, and how post-16 education can be improved.We recently saw the Education Select Committee (ESC) publish its report into reform of post-16 education. The ESC examined how effectively post-16, level 3 education and qualifications (such as A Levels, T Levels, BTECs and apprenticeships) prepare young people for the world of work. The Committee also considered the Government’s proposals for reform in this area. The result is a very well thought out report that deserves careful consideration.It’s too soon for T Levels to fully replace Applied General QualificationsA huge part of the government’s plans to deliver better technical education pathways has been the introduction of T Levels, so that post-16 learners can study towards an occupational specialism. The report notes our concern that T Levels only offer the skills required to start work, not those required to be occupationally competent – which is what an apprenticeship requires.The ESC’s view that we have yet to find the right balance between rigour and accessibility is important to recognise – and act on. Given the jury is still out on whether T Levels will prove to be a success, is this really the time to be removing funding from a range of Applied General Qualifications (AGQs)? Prematurely scrapping AGQs could worsen the already existing skills gap in many areas and 86% of respondents to the Department for Education’s consultation on AGQs disagreed with the proposal to remove funding for qualifications that overlap with T Levels.Instead, we would agree with the view of the committee’s report that funding for AGQs should only happen once T Levels are a proven success. A prerequisite for that is for businesses to offer sufficient, high-quality industry placements as part of T Level courses – after all that was meant to be the unique selling point of T Levels. Watering that down would in essence mean T Levels would become an elongated version of programme led apprenticeships which would be a huge backward step.ApprenticeshipsThe report looks carefully at the role of apprenticeships within the post-16 landscape and raises some very important points where we would find some common ground. We agree that it is welcome news that UCAS will open up their online portal to ensure people are able to search for, and learn about, apprenticeship options as well as traditional pathways. The fact that UCAS already have 1.5 million registered users means there is strong starting point here too.We also believe that reversing the long-term decline of apprenticeship numbers at entry level and among young people should be a priority for government. The best skills systems around the world are employer-led, and retaining an all-age, all-level apprenticeship system is vital. Key to increasing apprenticeship starts where they’re needed most will be making it easier for small and medium sized employers (SMEs) to take on an apprentice.We also need to challenge the bureaucracy and rules involved in taking on an apprentice for employers. On this front we’ve seen some recent moves which will help SMEs. From this April, non-levy paying employers have no longer been limited to a maximum of 10 apprenticeship starts. Every year the cap caused issues for smaller employers, and its removal – after a sustained campaign by AELP – is something that should be celebrated.This year we have worked closely with the DfE to simplify the funding rules and ensure the rules are published earlier in the year which have been positively received. Simplification is not a one-off hit though and we’ve got plenty more to feed in on this moving forward. For SMEs we think dropping the 5% co-investment is another opportunity to remove barriers to smaller employers. With the non-levy reservation system uncapped and co-investment removed i...
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    5 分
  • Term-time worker entitled to National Minimum Wage for 52 weeks

    Term-time worker entitled to National Minimum Wage for 52 weeks
    2023/05/11
    In this article, Glenn Hayes looks at the issue of paying staff on term-time only contracts through the lens of the Lloyd v Elmhurst School Ltd case. He discusses the background, implications and offers some top tips for schools and colleges.Schools and colleges employ staff on term-time only contracts to reduce their payroll costs. The vast majority agree to work during term-time (generally around 39 weeks a year in the state sector) and are paid a pro-rated salary to reflect this, which is then divided by 12 and paid monthly. Employees like this arrangement because it means they receive a regular wage, even when they are not required to work. It’s also administratively convenient for employers.Under the National Minimum Wage Regulations, workers must receive the NMW for the hours they work in a ‘relevant pay period’ (how often they are paid). To avoid HMRC concluding that term-time workers have been underpaid during their periods of work, their contracts have to comply with the detailed rules about salaried hours workers.In Lloyd v Elmhurst School Ltd, the EAT had to decide if a teaching assistant whose contract didn’t set out the number of hours she was required to work, and contained a clause which said she was ‘entitled to the usual school holidays as holidays with pay’, had been underpaid because she only received four weeks holiday pay. BackgroundMs Lloyd started working for the Elmhurst private school in 2009. The parties agreed that she would work term-time only and that she would be paid for 40 weeks a year (which included four weeks’ holiday) payable in twelve monthly instalments. However, the contract terms did not accurately reflect that agreement. It stated that Ms Lloyd:‘May be required to work for varying short periods at the end and before the beginning of term’‘Was entitled to the usual school holidays as holidays with pay’Ms Lloyd worked under that arrangement for a number of years. However, for reasons that aren’t explained, she later brought a tribunal claim arguing that she was entitled to be paid for each week of the school holidays in accordance with her contract and, therefore, hadn’t received the NMW. The school argued that it had paid her correctly and that her salary exceeded the NMW.The tribunal dismissed her claim and said that her ‘basic hours’ were based on 21 hours over 40 weeks which comprised the 36 hours she worked during term-time and four weeks leave. That was the arrangement agreed between the parties, albeit not reflected in the contract. Ms Lloyd appealed. Decision of the EATThe parties agreed that Ms Lloyd was engaged on a salaried hours contract and the EAT proceeded on that basis. The key question it had to determine was whether the tribunal had properly interpreted the rules that applied to working out the ‘basic hours’ of a salaried hours worker. The EAT said that the tribunal had got this wrong. The relevant provisions of the NMW Regulations (21(3)) don’t refer to working hours at all – but to ‘basic hours’. And these can include contractual hours which the worker doesn’t have to work as well as, paid contractual holiday. Ms Lloyd’s basic hours had to be ascertained from her contract – not from the number of hours she actually worked. Her contract clearly stated that she was entitled to be paid during the ‘usual school holidays’. The court couldn’t imply a term into the contract that the reference to paid holiday was limited to the amount of holiday she was entitled to under the Working Time Regulations 1998 and how much she had received. By not paying her for all of those holiday weeks, the claimant’s pay for her ‘basic hours’ fell below NMW rates. The EAT remitted the claim back to the tribunal to determine how much Ms Lloyd had been underpaid.It’s interesting that, prior to Ms Lloyd’s tribunal claim, HMRC had investigated the school. It found that term-time staff at the school were paid for a 40-week period and that the school hadn’t underpaid them. HMRC’s findings aren’t bi...
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    7 分
  • Why the skills gap is pointing organisations towards apprenticeships and turning higher education on its head

    Why the skills gap is pointing organisations towards apprenticeships and turning higher education on its head
    2023/05/12
    In this article, Sheila Flavell discusses how the skills gap and rising costs of higher education are leading organizations to consider apprenticeships as a solution. She highlights the benefits of apprenticeships, such as gaining practical skills, industry-recognized qualifications, and the chance to be paid while training.For school leavers, University seems like the obvious route to securing a successful career however, with a skills gap prevailing and the cost-of-living rising, employers, as well as prospective employees, should re-think the traditional academic route into the workplace.Gaining a higher education is not something to be slammed or achievement diminished, however, there are a multitude of other routes into the workplace and organisations should be just as open to hiring from various buckets of individuals as young people should be towards exploring other avenues.The technological skills gap is an issue that has been evidenced for many years now as the government and organisations struggle to find solutions to a problem that is holding back growth across all areas of the nation. Apprenticeships now present themselves as a solution, offering businesses the opportunity to train individuals in specific skills which they know their industry needs.On top of this, the nation is facing rising costs and an economy riddled with instability, and while the nation appears to be recovering, tough times are still ahead meaning apprenticeships, which not only offer the opportunity to learn a skill, but the opportunity to be paid while doing so, are fast becoming a popular choice.Government, businesses, and individuals must revaluate how they plan on achieving their goals and understand the position apprenticeships now play in the job market, offering solutions to multiple problems and opportunities in various different avenues.Overcrowded universitiesUniversities are a common pathway for young people to take, however, with the £9,250 per year price tag which excludes additional living costs, it is no surprise that alternate options, such as apprenticeships, are becoming increasingly popular.For young people looking to kick start their career, often academic qualifications seem necessary and while they offer a lot of value and provide skills that can be utilised in the workplace, they also provide limited opportunity to develop practical skills.Individuals often spend years studying, generally 3 – 8 depending on the level of degree ranging from Bachelor’s degree to Master’s through to PhD level, and while gaining academic qualifications is impressive, students often leave without gaining the practical experience the working world is crying out for.Apprenticeships generally take 1 – 5 years and offer on-the-job training in addition to one day of studying per week, which all contribute to obtaining an industry-recognised qualification at the end, often even a degree as the government introduced degree apprenticeships in 2015.In fact, individuals can earn whilst gaining skills and qualifications and as we live through a time of economic struggle, it is no wonder why apprenticeships are becoming so appealing to many, gaining the skills necessary to join the working world full time without amounting thousands of pounds worth of debt.Of course, there is still value in gaining a university degree, however as a record number of students apply to university this year meaning competition is high, individuals should consider alternate options which could ultimately give them a head start in learning the skills for their chosen career.Bringing in new talentApprenticeships do not just offer opportunities to young people who wish to gain skill over primarily academic experience, without paying the high prices, but offer a huge opportunity to businesses who are struggling to fill crucial roles that will allow their organisations to grow.Currently, research shows 92 per cent of businesses state it is important for their employees to have a...
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    6 分
  • Exam assessments can be reliable. And this is how to do it

    Exam assessments can be reliable. And this is how to do it
    2023/05/12
    In my FE News piece of 28 March, I examined the statement that GCSE, AS and A level grades are “reliable to one grade either way” (Q1059 here ) – a statement made at a hearing of the Commons Education Select Committee on 2 September 2020 by Ofqual’s then Chief Regulator, Dame Glenys Stacey.Two days later, on 30 March, there was a hearing of another Select Committee – that of the House of Lords, relating to Education for 11-16 Year Olds, at which the witnesses were Tim Oates CBE , Group Director of Assessment Research and Development at Cambridge Assessment, and recently-appointed member of Rishi Sunak’s expert advisory group on teaching maths to age 18 ; Sharon Hague , Senior Vice-President, Pearson School Qualifications; Gavin Busuttil-Reynaud , Director of Operations, Alpha Plus, a service organisation owned by AQA; and Dr Michelle Meadows , Associate Professor of Educational Assessment in the Department of Education at Oxford University, and formerly Ofqual’s Executive Director for Strategy, Risk and Research.You can watch the full proceedings here, and that is well-worth doing, for many important themes were explored, mainly concerned with assessment. This blog, though, will focus on the replies to a question asked by Lord Watson of Invergowrie, inviting comment on Dame Glenys Stacey’s statement (time-stamp about 11:55:50).Or rather, it will focus on two particular responses, both made by Dr Meadows, the first being her statement that“It’s really important that people don’t put too much weight on any individual grade.”“People”, presumably, applies to everyone – students, teachers, parents, employers, admissions officers… . If these “people” should not “put too much weight on any individual grade” – and it’s “really important” that they don’t – then I wonder (and I invite you to wonder too) what it is that I should do with them?If you listen to Dr Meadows’s full response – and that’s a good thing to do, for it will put those words in full context – you will hear that Dr Meadows does not address Lord Watson’s question directly, nor refer to Dame Glenys Stacey’s statement. However, if you put those two together – grades are “reliable to one grade either way”, and “It’s really important that people don’t put too much weight on any individual grade”, then maybe a picture emerges.So don’t be surprised if, this August, a student holding an offer of ABB but awarded ABC asks the admissions officer, “ May I have my place, please? ”.HOW RELIABLE CAN EXAM GRADES BE?The second response by Dr Meadows that I’d like to examine is this:“ To actually get 100% reliability would be technically pretty much impossible without the most extraordinarily long assessments ”.What Dr Meadows appears to be saying is that the 75% reliability currently delivered is about as good as you can get, and anything better is neither possible nor feasible.I agree that the achievement of 100% reliability is indeed impossible. But I believe that reliabilities of, say, 99.9% or 99.99% are not only possible, but very easy to deliver too.WHY GRADES ARE UNRELIABLETo verify that, I need to explain why grades are currently as unreliable as they are. It’s very likely you know that already, so please forgive me for “telling grandmothers…”.Fundamentally, it’s because two different, equally qualified, examiners can legitimately give the same script different marks : one examiner (or team of examiners, if each question is marked by different person) might give a script, say, 64 marks; another, 66. Both marks are equally valid; there are no “marking errors”; everything complies with the mark scheme. This is simply a legitimate difference in academic opinion.If grade B is all marks from 61 to 70 inclusive, both marks will result in grade B. But if the B/A grade boundary is 65/66, then the student’s certificate will show either grade B or grade A, depending on the lottery of who marked the script.This effect isn’t rare. Ofqual’s own research, first published...
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    12 分
  • How the government’s AI task force will impact innovation, growth, and consumer AI experie

    How the government’s AI task force will impact innovation, growth, and consumer AI experie
    2023/05/15
    The UK government’s £100m commitment to supporting the development of AI-focused startups provides a valuable opportunity to reflect on how innovation correlates to growth within the tech space, and what developments in generative AI could mean for consumers. The government’s announcement of an AI taskforce to accelerate its generative AI sector is a promising development for UK tech, potentially creating an avenue through which innovation and growth might be fostered.The £100-million funding backing the project suggests an understanding of the potential benefits of leveraging AI to create new businesses and enhance existing ones. Beyond the transformative impact that the new generation of AI platforms might have on how any number of businesses operate, AI represents an opportunity to encourage growth and build momentum for the UK tech sector, with this initiative hopefully making that possible.Artificial intelligence is expected to make a substantial contribution to the economy in the coming years and is projected to raise GDP by 7% within a decade. It offers a wide range of applications across various industries, from healthcare to education, finance, and beyond.If correctly applied, this investment has the potential to empower cutting-edge AI solutions that will enhance efficiency and create value for both businesses and consumers. But what form will this AI-driven transformation take?INNOVATION AND GROWTHMachine-learning platforms that analyse data, predict outcomes and simulate scenarios have been in use for many years, from calculating insurance risk and gambling odds to advising brokers on stock market trends. This new generation of conversational, generative AI have taken things to the next level, offering institutions and enterprises the means of training, redirecting and communicating without relying exclusively on human employees.The theoretical applications of AI are nearly limitless, and this is where the greatest opportunity for both the tech and commercial sectors lies. Developing new platforms and usages for AI technology have the potential to accelerate innovation and produce solutions that make processes more efficient and interfaces more convenient to use.For education and training interests, smart AI directory programs can help connect users with the relevant information and even fulfil requests and respond to queries, providing valuable support instantly and at all hours.Logistical, retail and FMCG businesses could certainly benefit from the analytical and predictive capabilities of AI, allowing it to audit their processes and operations to improve efficiencies and reduce human error through digital oversight.For tech businesses, however, the greatest potential is in making AI smarter and more accessible. In theory, the government task force will make funding more available and help reduce regulatory and compliance obstacles, making AI an appealing prospect for UK tech startups, returning momentum to a tech sector that has suffered due to widespread economic slowdown.CONSUMER BENEFITSFor most consumers, their only experience of encountering AI platforms to date will be the virtual assistants and digital AI chatbots that tech-savvy brands have implemented in recent years.At the highest level, groundbreaking new AIs can enhance efficiencies and create value for the businesses that use them, but this incredible potential might stand at odds with the experiences of most consumers, whose own experiences of AI chatbots when interacting with brands and banks are not so positive.For instance, only 24% of respondents in a recent Studio Graphene survey believed that chatbots were good at understanding the questions they were asked, highlighting the gap between the potential and current applications of AI.In addition to technological considerations, there is a human element to take into account when adopting AI. Consumers may be accustomed to engaging with human agents, so the transition to automated chatbots may...
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    6 分