Japan entered the First World War to remove Germany’s presence in Asia and expand its regional influence. This chapter follows the capture of Qingdao, the occupation of German Pacific islands, and Japanese naval patrols in the Mediterranean. It also examines the Twenty-One Demands imposed on China and an industrial boom that enriched business owners while inflation burdened workers and families. In 1918, the Rice Riots and the intervention in Siberia exposed the contradictions of a victorious power. The fighting remained geographically distant for most Japanese citizens, yet the war profoundly transformed Japan’s economy, politics, navy, diplomacy, and colonial empire.

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The United States spent almost three years defending its neutrality, even as trade and finance drew it closer to the Allies. This chapter explains how the Lusitania, unrestricted submarine warfare, and the Zimmermann Telegram transformed the national debate before the declaration of war in April 1917. It also explores mass conscription, propaganda, political repression, women’s wartime labor, and African American soldiers serving in a segregated military. In 1918, American forces fought at Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne, providing troops, resources, and confidence that significantly strengthened the Allied war effort without winning the conflict on their own.

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Italy began the conflict as a neutral member of the Triple Alliance and ended up fighting Austria-Hungary. This chapter explores the secret negotiations, the Treaty of London, and the struggle between neutralists and interventionists that led Italy into the war in 1915. It follows the Isonzo offensives, mountain warfare, Cadorna’s severe discipline, and the disaster at Caporetto. It also examines food shortages, women’s wartime labor, protests, occupation, and civilian displacement. After rebuilding its army along the Piave, Italy resisted the final Austro-Hungarian attack and won at Vittorio Veneto, emerging victorious but deeply divided and economically exhausted.

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The Ottoman Empire entered the war hoping to survive as a great power and regain strategic freedom against Russia and Europe’s rival empires. This chapter follows its alliance with Germany, the disaster at Sarikamish, the victory at Gallipoli, and the campaigns in Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Arabia. It also examines hunger, disease, desertion, and state violence against Armenian communities targeted in genocide. The Arab Revolt, the loss of Baghdad and Jerusalem, and the military collapse of 1918 led to the Armistice of Mudros and ended the Ottoman war after four years of resistance, sacrifice, repression, devastation, and imperial fragmentation across continents.

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Russia entered the First World War to support Serbia and preserve its status as a great power, but the conflict accelerated a crisis already weakening the tsarist empire. This chapter follows Tannenberg, the Great Retreat of 1915, the Brusilov Offensive, and the army’s mounting exhaustion. It also examines inflation, shortages, railway failures, and political tensions that culminated in the February Revolution. The Provisional Government chose to continue the war while soldiers and workers demanded immediate change. The October Revolution and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ultimately removed Russia from the global conflict in 1918, after years of sacrifice and profound upheaval.

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Britain entered the war after Germany invaded Belgium, but the conflict soon exceeded every initial expectation. This chapter follows the British Army in France, mass recruitment, Gallipoli, the Somme, Passchendaele, and the naval struggle against Germany. It also examines how soldiers, workers, ships, and resources from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Africa, and other imperial territories sustained a truly global war effort. At home, munitions factories, rationing, air raids, and social change reshaped civilian life, while Ireland faced its own political crisis. Victory in 1918 preserved Britain’s position, but left the empire financially weakened and permanently transformed.

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France began the war seeking to regain the initiative, but soon had to defend Paris and fight for four years on its own soil. This chapter follows the defeats of 1914, the Battle of the Marne, trench warfare, and the defense of Verdun. It also examines occupation in the north, women’s wartime labor, colonial mobilization, shortages, and the strain placed on families. After the failed Nivelle Offensive, the 1917 mutinies exposed a profound military crisis. In 1918, France survived Germany’s final offensives and achieved a victory overshadowed by immense human losses and widespread material destruction.

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In 1914, Germany entered a war its leaders feared fighting on two fronts. This chapter reconstructs the sense of encirclement, the invasion of Belgium, the failed advance into France, and the simultaneous struggle against Russia. It also explores the trenches, the naval blockade, food shortages, industrial mobilization, and the growing authority of Hindenburg and Ludendorff. Unrestricted submarine warfare helped bring the United States into the conflict, while peace with Russia created one final opportunity in 1918. That offensive failed, and military exhaustion, social unrest, and political collapse led to revolution, the Kaiser’s abdication, and the armistice signed in November 1918.

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