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  • 18 - Practices.

    18 - Practices.
    2026/04/22
    Practices.
    Key elements of Taoist practice include a commitment to self-cultivation, wu wei, and attunement to the patterns of the Tao. The practice of Taoism seeks to develop the body back to its original level of energy and restore it to its original state of creation. The body is no longer just a means of living in harmony in the world; it is itself a universe. Most Taoists throughout history have agreed on the importance of self cultivation through various practices, which were seen as ways to transform oneself and integrate oneself to the deepest realities.
    Communal rituals are important in most Taoist traditions, as are methods of self-cultivation. Taoist self-cultivation practices tend to focus on the transformation of the heart-mind together with bodily substances and energies (like jing and qi) and their connection to natural and universal forces, patterns, and powers.
    Despite the detachment from reality and dissent from Confucian humanism that the Tao Te Ching teaches, Taoists were and are generally not misanthropes or nihilists and see humans as an important class of things in the world. However, in most Taoist views humans were not held to be especially important in comparison to other aspects of the world and Taoist metaphysics that were seen as equally or more special. Similarly, some Taoists had similar views on their gods or the gods of other religions.
    According to Louis Komjathy, Taoist practice is a complex subject that includes "aesthetics, art, dietetics, ethics, health and longevity practice, meditation, ritual, seasonal attunement, scripture study, and so forth."
    Throughout the history of Taoism, mountains have occupied a special place for Taoist practice. They are seen as sacred spaces and as the ideal places for Taoist cultivation and Taoist monastic or eremitic life, which may include "cloud wandering" (yunyou) in the mountains and dwelling in mountain hermitages or grottoes.
    Tao can serve as a life energy instead of qi in some Taoist belief systems.
    The Nine Practices.
    One of the earliest schemas for Taoist practice was the "nine practices" or "nine virtues" (jiǔxíng), which were taught in the Celestial Masters school. These were drawn from classical sources, mainly the Tao Te Ching, and are presented in the Laojun jinglu (Scriptural Statutes of Lord Lao; DZ 786).
    The nine practices are:
    - Nonaction (wu wei): Acting in a way that does not force outcomes, responding to situations with minimal contrivance so things unfold in accordance with the Dao.
    - Softness and weakness (róuruò): Valuing flexibility, humility, and yielding strength, on the model of water, which overcomes hardness by not resisting it head-on.
    - Guarding the feminine (shǒucí): “Holding to the receptive” by maintaining a quiet, nurturing, non-dominating posture that preserves inner vitality and avoids aggressive display.
    - Being nameless (wúmíng): Not fixating on labels, status, or reputations, and returning to the prior-to-concepts simplicity from which distinctions arise.
    - Clarity and stillness (qīngjìng): Cultivating mental and energetic quiet so perception becomes clear and one can align with the natural order without agitation.
    - Being adept (zhūshàn): Developing broad skill in “the goods” (virtues/beneficial actions), so one’s conduct is reliably helpful, timely, and appropriate.
    - Being desireless (wúyù): Reducing grasping and craving that distort judgment, so action is guided by what is fitting rather than what the ego wants.
    - Knowing how to stop and be content (zhī zhǐzú): Recognizing sufficiency (setting limits and resting satisfied) so ambition doesn’t become compulsive and destructive.
    - Yielding and withdrawing (tuīràng): Stepping back, giving way, and letting others take precedence when appropriate, reducing conflict and maintaining harmony.


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    4 分
  • 17 - Theology and Taoist Deities.

    17 - Theology and Taoist Deities.
    2026/04/22
    Theology and Taoist Deities. Taoist theology can be defined as apophatic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable nature of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Nearly all the sects share this core belief. As mentioned above, the primary theology of Taoism involves the Dao as ultimate unity, as cosmic process, and as immanent-yet-exceeding the manifested world. In this sense, arguments for a monotheistic Taoism exist. Nevertheless, on a secondary level of theology, Taoism features a vast pantheon of deities and spirits from Chinese mythology, associated with both living and non-living things, making it animistic and polytheistic. These deities are seen as emanations from an impersonal ultimate principle. In other words, deities are simply differentiated aspects of the Dao - some may be "higher" on some level, but all are manifestations of the Dao. In Taoism (and more broadly in Chinese religion), unseen beings are often classified into shen ("gods/spirits"), zong ( "ancestors"), and gui ("ghosts"). Gods are recognized divine beings, ancestors are the ritually integrated dead of one's specific lineage, and ghosts are "disenfranchised" spirits (such as orphans or widows, or those who die unexpectedly). Some Taoist texts also discuss demons (mo), a term used to refer to disorientated spirits or "unresolved qi-patterns". In addition, Taoist religious traditions emphasize the ability for human beings to achieved transformed states, referred to as xian ("Immortals") or zhenren (“Perfected/Realized persons”). In some contexts, "immortals" can be read as literal immortality, whereas in other contexts it refers to a more general spiritual transcendence. This is seen as the pinnacle of disciplined self-cultivation, although the exact paths vary by tradition (e.g. ethical discipline, meditation, qi practices, ritual work, internal alchemy, etc.) Some figures are widely known in Chinese popular religion (e.g., the Eight Immortals), while others represent highly important figures in the history of Taoism (such as Zhang Daoling, Wei Huacun, Lu Xiujing, Wang Chongyang, and Lü Dongbin). Taoist Deities. There is no fixed "Taoist pantheon", as Taoism is very inclusive with regards to incorporating local gods and immortals. Furthermore, different sects and regions emphasize different figures. However, Komjathy presents a simplified modern Taoist pantheon as follows: At the ultimate level is the Dao, the uncreated source and ongoing process through which all things arise and transform. All Taoist deities are seen as expressions or emanations of the Dao.Next, the Three Pure Ones are generally treated as the highest "manifestations" of the Dao: Yuanshi Tianzun ("Original and Primordial Heavenly Lord"), Lingbao Tianzun ("Divine Treasures Heavenly Lord"), and Daode Tianzun ("Heavenly Lord of Way and Virtue"). In many contexts, Daode Tianzun is seen as the deified form of Laozi, which ties this third “Pure One” to the Tao Te Ching and to Laozi’s role as revealer/teacher. Underneath the Three Pure Ones, the next ruling power is the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang Dadi). If the Three Pure Ones are like supreme “principles,” the Jade Emperor is the administrator of the cosmos. He functions as the sovereign ruler of heaven who administers the cosmos through a vast celestial bureaucracy modeled on the imperial court of ancient China. He is assisted by the Four Heavenly Ministers (sometimes extended to six in later traditions), high-ranking “deputy” sovereigns who oversee major cosmic domains. Next, there exists a series of high profile divine figures, serving as cosmic "department heads" with large jurisdictions. These include: - The Three Great Emperor-Officials: These consist of the ""Heavenly Official" (responsible for granting blessings), the "Earthly Official" (granting pardon and forgiveness), and the "Water Official" (granting relief from calamities and disasters). - The five Wufang Shangdi: These are sovereigns of the fivefold cosmos, each one corresponding to one of the Five Phases: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. - Xuanwu/Zhenwu: A major martial protector, strongly linked to exorcism, northern power, and the policing/protection side of the cosmos. - Bixia Yuanjun: The Goddess of childbirth and destiny, associated with Mount Tai and widely venerated for protection (especially for childbirth and family welfare). - Doumu: The “Dipper Mother,” associated with the Big Dipper and serving as a protective deity invoked in rituals for health, protection against misfortune, and spiritual cultivation. - Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu): A supreme mother goddess associated with immortality (Kunlun, peaches, paradise motifs), often seen in longevity/immortal imagery. Next, there are deities who serve as "specialist services", or deities commonly invoked for more narrow functional roles. Lesser deities may ...
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    7 分
  • 16 - Cosmology.

    16 - Cosmology.
    2026/04/22
    Cosmology.
    Taoist cosmology is cyclic—the universe is seen as being in constant change, with various forces and energies (qi) affecting each other in different complex patterns. Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the School of Naturalists. Taoist cosmology focuses on the impersonal transformations (zaohua) of the universe, which are spontaneous and unguided.
    Livia Kohn explains the basic Taoist cosmological theory as:
    The root of creation Tao rested in deep chaos (ch. 42). Next, it evolved into the One, a concentrated state of cosmic unity that is full of creative potential and often described in I Ching terms as the taiji. The One then brought forth "the Two", the two energies yin and yang, which in turn merged in harmony to create the next level of existence, "the Three" (yin-yang combined), from which the myriad beings came forth. From original oneness, the world thus continued to move into ever greater states of distinction and differentiation.
    The main distinction in Taoist cosmology is that between yin and yang, which applies to various sets of complementary ideas: bright – dark, light – heavy, soft – hard, strong – weak, above – below, ruler – minister, male – female, and so on.
    Cosmically, these two forces exist in mutual harmony and interdependence. Yin and yang are further divided into five phases (Wuxing, or five materials): minor yang, major yang, yin/yang, minor yin, major yin. Each correlates with a specific substance: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water, respectively. This schema is used in many different ways in Taoist thought and practice, from nourishing life (yangsheng) and medicine to astrology and divination.
    Taoists also generally see all things as being animated and constituted by qi (vital air, subtle breath), which is seen as a force that circulates throughout the universe and throughout human bodies (as both air in the lungs and as a subtle breath throughout the body's meridians and organs). Qi is in constant transformation between its condensed state (life) and diluted state (potential). These two different states of qi are embodiments of yin and yang, two complementary forces that constantly play against and with each other and where one cannot exist without the other.
    Taoist texts present various creation stories and cosmogonies. Classic cosmogonies are nontheistic, presenting a natural undirected process in which an apophatic undifferentiated potentiality (wuwuji 'without non-differentiation') naturally unfolds into wuji (primordial oneness, "non-differentiation"), which then evolves into yin-yang (taiji) and then into the myriad beings, as in the Tao Te Ching. Later medieval models included the idea of a creator God (mainly seen as Lord Lao), representing order and creativity. Taoist cosmology influences Taoist soteriology, which holds that one can "return to the root" (guigen) of the universe (and of ourselves), which is also the Tao—the impersonal source (yuan) of all things. Taoist cosmology also incorporates concepts from Chinese astrology.
    In Taoism, human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe, and thus the cosmological forces, like the five phases, are also present in the form of the zangfu organs. Another common belief is that there are various gods that reside in human bodies. As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.


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    4 分
  • 15 - Soteriology and religious goals.

    15 - Soteriology and religious goals.
    2026/04/22
    Soteriology and religious goals.
    Taoists have different religious goals that include Taoist conceptions of sagehood (zhenren), spiritual self-cultivation, a happy afterlife or longevity and some form of immortality (xian, variously understood as a kind of transcendent post-mortem state of the spirit).
    Taoists' views about what happens in the afterlife tend to include the soul becoming a part of the cosmos (which was often thought of as an illusionary place where qi and physical matter were thought of as being the same in a way held together by the microcosm of the spirits of the human body and the macrocosm of the universe itself, represented and embodied by the Three Pure Ones), somehow aiding the spiritual functions of nature or Tian after death or being saved by either achieving spiritual immortality in an afterlife or becoming a xian who can appear in the human world at will, but normally lives in another plane. "Sacred forests and/or mountains" or a yin-yang, yin, yang, or Tao realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even the virtuous Confucius and Confucianists, such as the mental realm sometimes called "the Heavens" where higher, spiritual versions of Taoists such as Laozi were thought to exist when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang" were all possibilities for a potential xian to be reborn in. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as xian dragons who eat yin and yang energy and ride clouds and their qi.
    More specifically, possibilities for "the spirit of the body" include "join[ing] the universe after death", exploring or serving various functions in parts of tiān or other spiritual worlds, or becoming a xian who can do one or more of those things.
    Taoist xian are often seen as being eternally young because "of their life being totally at one with the Tao of nature." They are also often seen as being made up of "pure breath and light" and as being able to shapeshift, and some Taoists believed their afterlife natural "paradises" were palaces of heaven.
    Taoists who sought to become one of the many different types of immortals, such as xian or zhenren, wanted to "ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality".
    In the Quanzhen school of Wang Chongyang, the goal is to become a sage, which he equates with being a "spiritual immortal" (shen xien) and with the attainment of "clarity and stillness" (qingjing) through the integration of "inner nature" (xing) and "worldly reality" (ming).
    Those who know the Tao, who flow with the natural way of the Tao and thus embody the patterns of the Tao, are called sages or "perfected persons" (zhenren). This is what is often considered salvation in Taoist soteriology. They often are depicted as living simple lives, as craftsmen or hermits. In other cases, they are depicted as the ideal rulers who practice ruling through non-intervention and under whom nations prosper peacefully. Sages are the highest humans, mediators between heaven and earth, and the best guides on the Taoist path. They act naturally and simply, with a pure mind and with wuwei. They may have supernatural powers and bring good fortune and peace.
    Some sages are also considered to have become one of the xian through their mastery of the Tao. After shedding their mortal form, spiritual immortals may have many superhuman abilities like flight and are often said to live in heavenly realms.
    The sages are thus because they have attained the primary goal of Taoism: a union with the Tao and harmonization or alignment with its patterns and flows. This experience is one of being attuned to the Tao and to our own original nature, which already has a natural capacity for resonance (ganying) with Tao. This is the main goal that all Taoist practices are aiming towards and can be felt in various ways, such as a sense of psychosomatic vitality and aliveness, as well as stillness and a "true joy" (zhenle) or "celestial joy" that remains unaffected by mundane concerns like gain and loss.
    The Taoist quest for immortality was inspired by Confucian emphasis on filial piety and how worshipped ancestors were thought to exist after death.
    Becoming an immortal through the power of yin-yang and heaven, but also specifically Taoist interpretations of the Tao, was sometimes thought of as possible in Chinese folk religion, and Taoist thoughts on immortality were sometimes drawn from Confucian views on heaven and its status as an afterlife that permeates the mortal world as well.


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    5 分
  • 14 - Ethics.

    14 - Ethics.
    2026/04/22
    Ethics.
    Taoist ethics tends to emphasize various themes from the Taoist classics, such as naturalness (pu), spontaneity (ziran), simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei. The classic Taoist view is that humans are originally and naturally aligned with Tao; thus, their original nature is inherently good. It emphasizes doing things that are natural, following the Tao, which is a cosmic force that flows through all things and binds and releases them. However, one can fall away from this due to personal habits, desires, and social conditions. Returning to one's nature requires active attunement through Taoist practice and ethical cultivation.
    Some popular Taoist beliefs, such as the early Shangqing School, do not believe this and believe that some people are irredeemably evil and destined to be so. Many Taoist movements from around the time Buddhist elements started being syncretized with Taoism had a highly negative view of foreigners, referring to them as yi or "barbarians", and some of these thought of foreigners as people who do not feel "human feelings" and who never live out the correct norms of conduct until they became Taoist. At this time, China was widely viewed by Taoists as a holy land because of influence from the Chinese public that viewed being born in China as a privilege and that outsiders were enemies. Preserving a sense of "Chineseness" in the country and rewarding nativist policies such as the building of the Great Wall of China was important to many Taoist groups.
    Foreigners who joined these Taoist sects were made to repent for their sins in another life that caused them to be born "in the frontier wilds" because of Buddhist ideas of reincarnation coming into their doctrines. Some Taoist movements viewed human nature neutrally. However, some of the movements that were dour or skeptical about human nature did not believe that evil is permanent and believed that evil people can become good. Korean Taoists tended to think extremely positively of human nature.
    Some of the most important virtues in Taoism are the Three Treasures or Three Jewels (sānbǎo). These are: ci, cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān; 'not daring to act as first under the heavens', but usually translated as humility). Arthur Waley, applying them to the socio-political sphere, translated them as: "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".
    Taoism also adopted the Buddhist doctrines of karma and reincarnation into its religious ethical system. Medieval Taoist thought developed the idea that ethics was overseen by a celestial administration that kept records of people's actions and their fate, as well as handed out rewards and punishments through particular celestial administrators.
    In its original form, the religion does not involve political affairs or complex rituals; on the contrary, it encourages the avoidance of public responsibility and the search for a vision of a spiritual, transcendent world.


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    3 分
  • 13 - The Taoist body.

    13 - The Taoist body.
    2026/04/22
    The Taoist body.
    Many Taoist practices work with ancient Chinese understandings of the body, its organs and parts, "elixir fields" (dantien), inner substances (such as "essence" or jing), animating forces (like the hun and po), and meridians (qi channels). The complex Taoist schema of the body and its subtle body components contains many parallels with Traditional Chinese medicine and is used for health practices as well as for somatic and spiritual transformation (through neidan – "psychosomatic transmutation" or "internal alchemy"). Taoist physical cultivation rely on purifying and transforming the body's qi (vital breath, energy) in various ways such as dieting and meditation.
    According to Livia Kohn, qi is "the cosmic energy that pervades all. The concrete aspect of Tao, qi is the material force of the universe, the basic stuff of nature." According to the Zhuangzi, "human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal." Everyone has some amount of qi and can gain and lose qi in various ways. Therefore, Taoists hold that through various Qi cultivation methods they can harmonize their qi, and thus improve health and longevity, and even attain magic powers, social harmony, and immortality. The Neiye is one of the earliest texts that teach qi cultivation methods.
    Qi is one of the Three Treasures, which is a specifically Taoist schema of the main elements in Taoist physical practices like qigong and neidan. The three are: jing (essence, the foundation for one's vitality), qi and shén (spirit, subtle consciousness, a capacity to connect with the subtle spiritual reality). These three are further associated with the three "elixir fields" (dantian) and the organs in different ways.
    The body in Taoist political philosophy was important and their differing views on it and humanity's place in the universe were a point of distinction from Confucian politicians, writers, and political commentators. Some Taoists viewed ancestors as merely corpses that were improperly revered and respect for the dead as irrelevant and others within groups that followed these beliefs viewed almost all traditions as worthless.


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    2 分
  • 12 - Teachings.

    12 - Teachings.
    2026/04/22
    Teachings. Ziran. Ziran (zìrán; tzu-jan; lit. "self-so", "self-organization") is regarded as a central concept and value in Taoism and as a way of flowing with the Tao. It describes the "primordial state" of all things as well as a basic character of the Tao, and is usually associated with naturalness and creativity. According to Kohn, in the Zhuangzi, ziran refers to the fact that "there is thus no ultimate cause to make things what they are. The universe exists by itself and of itself; it is existence just as it is. Nothing can be added or subtracted from it; it is entirely sufficient upon itself." To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao and flow with its natural rhythms as expressed in oneself. This involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire and appreciating simplicity. It also consists of understanding one's nature and living in accordance with it without trying to be something one is not or overthinking one's experience. One way of cultivating ziran found in the Zhuangzi is to practice the "fasting of the mind", a kind of Taoist meditation in which one empties the mind. It is held that this can also activate qi (vital energy). In some passages found in the Zhuangzi and in the Tao Te Ching, naturalness is also associated with rejection of the state (anarchism) and a desire to return to simpler pre-technological times (primitivism). An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (pǔ, pú; p'u; 'uncut wood'), the "uncarved log", which represents the "original nature ... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual. It is usually referred to as a state one may return to. Wu wei. Wu wei is a primary ethical concept in Taoism. Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Standard translations are non-action, effortless action, action without intent, non-interference, and non-intervention. The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": an action without action. Kohn writes that wu wei refers to "letting go of egoistic concerns" and "to abstain from forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disruption in favor of gentleness, adaptation, and ease." In ancient Taoist texts, wu wei is associated with water through its yielding nature and the effortless way it flows around obstacles. Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching, proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony, and unintended consequences may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Thus, the Tao Te Ching says: "act of things and you will ruin them. Grasp for things and you will lose them. Therefore the sage acts with inaction and has no ruin, lets go of grasping and has no loss." Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Instead, it asserts that one must place one's will in harmony with the natural way of the universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly. "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction." Aspects of self. The Taoist view of the self is holistic and rejects the idea of a separate individualized self. As Russell Kirkland writes, Taoists "generally assume that one's 'self' cannot be understood or fulfilled without reference to other persons, and to the broader set of realities in which all persons are naturally and properly embedded." In Taoism, one's innate or fundamental nature (xing) is ultimately the Tao expressing or manifesting itself as an embodied person. Innate nature is connected with one's heart-mind (xin), which refers to consciousness, the heart, and one's spirit. The focus of Taoist psychology is the heart-mind (xin), the intellectual and emotional center (zhong) of a person. It is associated with the chest cavity and the physical heart, as well as with emotions, thoughts, consciousness, and the storehouse of spirit (shen). When the heart-mind is unstable and separated from the Tao, it is called the ordinary heart-mind (suxin). On the other hand, the original heart-mind (benxin) pervades Tao and is constant and peaceful. The Neiye (ch.14) calls this pure original heart-mind the "inner heart-mind", "an awareness that precedes language", and "a lodging place of the numinous". Later Taoist sources also refer to it by other terms like "awakened nature" (wuxing), "original nature" (benxing), "original spirit" (yuanshen), and "scarlet palace". This pure heart-mind is seen as being characterized by clarity and stillness (qingjing), purity, pure yang, spiritual insight, and emptiness. Taoists see life (sheng) as an expression of the Tao. The Tao is seen as granting each person a ming (life destiny), which is...
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    6 分
  • 11 - Teachings.

    11 - Teachings.
    2026/04/22
    Teachings.
    Tao.
    The opening line of the Tao Te Ching begins with: "The Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao." This is generally interpreted to mean Tao is, on an ultimate level, indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition.
    Tao (or Dao) can mean "way", "road", "channel", "path", "doctrine", or "line". Livia Kohn describes the Tao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes the wicked. Literally 'the way', Tao refers to the way things develop naturally, the way nature moves along, and living beings growing and declining in accordance with cosmic laws." Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that Taoists have described the Tao as "dark" (xuan), "indistinct" (hu), "obscure" (huang), and "silent" (mo).
    According to Komjathy, the Tao has four primary characteristics: "source of all existence", "unnamable mystery", "all-pervading sacred presence", and "universe as cosmological process". As such, Taoist thought can be seen as monistic (the Tao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and panentheistic (the Tao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent). Similarly, Wing-tsit Chan describes the Tao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course." The Tao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.
    Furthermore, the Tao is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves and in natural and social patterns.
    Thus, the Tao is also the "innate nature" (xing) of all people, a nature which Taoists see as being ultimately good. In a naturalistic sense, the Tao is a visible pattern, "the Tao that can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world that can be observed and described. Thus, Kohn writes that Tao can be explained as twofold: the transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Tao and the natural, visible, and tangible Tao.
    Tao is a process of reality itself, a way for things to gather together while still changing. All of these reflect the deep-rooted belief of the Chinese people that change is the most fundamental characteristic of things. In the Book of Changes, this pattern of change is symbolized by numbers representing 64 related force relationships, known as hexagrams. Tao is the change of these forces, usually referred to as yin and yang.
    Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different metaphysical views regarding the Tao. For example, while the Xuanxue thinker Wang Bi described Tao as wú (nothingness, negativity, not-being), Guo Xiang rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was spontaneous "self-production" and "self-transformation". The Chongxuan School developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka philosophy.

    De.
    The active expression of Tao is called De (dé; also spelled Te or Teh; often translated with virtue or power), in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao. The term De can be used to refer to ethical virtue in the conventional Confucian sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Tao and practicing wu wei. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Tao's power and not anything like conventional morality. Louis Komjathy describes De as the manifestation of one's connection to the Tao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.


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    2 分