『Taoism.』のカバーアート

Taoism.

Taoism.

著者： Popular Culture and Religion.
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概要

 Taoism.
Taoism, also romanized as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese tradition encompassing philosophy and organized religion, both oriented toward aligning human life with the Dao, the ineffable cosmic process and underlying reality of the universe. Originating in the 6th century BCE, it traces its foundational ideas to Laozi (Lao Tzu), a semi-legendary figure credited with authoring the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), a concise text of aphorisms emphasizing simplicity, spontaneity, and the principle of wu wei—effortless action in accordance with natural rhythms rather than coercive intervention. The tradition bifurcates into philosophical Taoism (Daojia), which prioritizes introspective self-cultivation, relativism, and critique of artificial social norms through texts like the Zhuangzi, and religious Taoism (Daojiao), which emerged later with ritual, alchemical, and longevity practices aimed at transcending mortality, incorporating deities, talismans, and communal worship. Central concepts include the dynamic interplay of opposites (yin and yang), the rejection of rigid dualism in favor of fluid unity, and the pursuit of harmony with nature's uncarved block (pu), influencing subsequent Chinese thought in ethics, aesthetics, medicine, and governance while adapting through millennia of syncretism with Confucianism and Buddhism.Copyright Popular Culture and Religion.
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  • 11 - Teachings.

    11 - Teachings.
    2026/04/22
    Teachings.
    Tao.
    The opening line of the Tao Te Ching begins with: "The Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao." This is generally interpreted to mean Tao is, on an ultimate level, indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition.
    Tao (or Dao) can mean "way", "road", "channel", "path", "doctrine", or "line". Livia Kohn describes the Tao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes the wicked. Literally 'the way', Tao refers to the way things develop naturally, the way nature moves along, and living beings growing and declining in accordance with cosmic laws." Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that Taoists have described the Tao as "dark" (xuan), "indistinct" (hu), "obscure" (huang), and "silent" (mo).
    According to Komjathy, the Tao has four primary characteristics: "source of all existence", "unnamable mystery", "all-pervading sacred presence", and "universe as cosmological process". As such, Taoist thought can be seen as monistic (the Tao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and panentheistic (the Tao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent). Similarly, Wing-tsit Chan describes the Tao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course." The Tao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.
    Furthermore, the Tao is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves and in natural and social patterns.
    Thus, the Tao is also the "innate nature" (xing) of all people, a nature which Taoists see as being ultimately good. In a naturalistic sense, the Tao is a visible pattern, "the Tao that can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world that can be observed and described. Thus, Kohn writes that Tao can be explained as twofold: the transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Tao and the natural, visible, and tangible Tao.
    Tao is a process of reality itself, a way for things to gather together while still changing. All of these reflect the deep-rooted belief of the Chinese people that change is the most fundamental characteristic of things. In the Book of Changes, this pattern of change is symbolized by numbers representing 64 related force relationships, known as hexagrams. Tao is the change of these forces, usually referred to as yin and yang.
    Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different metaphysical views regarding the Tao. For example, while the Xuanxue thinker Wang Bi described Tao as wú (nothingness, negativity, not-being), Guo Xiang rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was spontaneous "self-production" and "self-transformation". The Chongxuan School developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka philosophy.

    De.
    The active expression of Tao is called De (dé; also spelled Te or Teh; often translated with virtue or power), in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao. The term De can be used to refer to ethical virtue in the conventional Confucian sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Tao and practicing wu wei. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Tao's power and not anything like conventional morality. Louis Komjathy describes De as the manifestation of one's connection to the Tao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.


    Wikipedia: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License.

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    2 分
  • 10 - Late modern Taoism.

    10 - Late modern Taoism.
    2026/04/22
    Late modern Taoism. Taoism began to recover during the reform and opening up period (beginning in 1979) during which mainland China experienced increased religious freedom. This led to the restoration of many temples and communities, the publishing of Taoist literature and the preservation of Taoist material culture. Several Chinese intellectuals, like Hu Fuchen (Chinese Academy of Social Studies) and Liu Xiaogan (Chinese University of Hong Kong) have worked to developed a "New Daojia" (xin daojia), which parallels the rise of New Confucianism. During the 1980s and 1990s, China experienced the so-called Qigong fever, which saw a surge in the popularity of Qigong practice throughout China. During this period many new Taoist and Taoist-influenced religions sprung up, the most popular being those associated with Qigong, such as Zangmigong (Tantric Qigong influenced by Tibetan Buddhism), Zhong Gong (Central Qigong), and Falun Gong, which came to be outlawed and repressed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the People's Republic of China. In mainland China, the government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association. Regarding the status of Taoism in mainland China, Livia Kohn writes: Taoist institutions are state-owned, monastics are paid by the government, several bureaus compete for revenues and administrative power, and training centers require courses in Marxism as preparation for full ordination. Still, temple compounds are growing on the five sacred mountains, on Taoist mountains, and in all major cities. The White Cloud Temple at Beijing remains the most important center for the training of Taoist monastics on the mainland, while the five sacred mountains of China also contain influential Taoist centers. Other key sites include: Wudangshan, Mount Longhu, Mount Qiyun, Mount Qingcheng, Mount Tai, Zhongnan mountains, Mount Mao, and Mount Lao. Meanwhile, Taoism is also practiced much more freely in Taiwan and Hong Kong, where it is a major religion and retains unique features and movements that differ from mainland Taoism. Taoism is also practiced throughout the wider East Asian cultural sphere. Outside of China, many traditionally Taoist practices have spread, especially through Chinese emigration as well as conversion by non-Chinese. Taoist-influenced practices, like tai chi and qigong, are also popular around the world. Its influence is ubiquitous, especially in divination and magical practices. As such, Taoism is now a religion with a global distribution. Taoism has been traditionally associated with Northern China, Southern China, and Western China, and originated from Southern China. During the late 20th century, Taoism began to spread to the Western world, leading to various forms of Taoist communities in the West, with Taoist publications, websites, meditation and Tai chi centers, and translations of Taoist texts by western scholars as well as non-specialists. Taoist classics like the Tao Te Ching have also become popular in the New Age movement and in "popular Western Taoism", a kind of popularized hybrid spirituality. According to Louis Komjathy, this "popular Western Taoism" is associated with popular translations and interpretations of the Tao Te Ching and the work of popular figures like James Legge, Alan Watts, John Blofeld, Gia-fu Feng, and Bruce Lee. This popular spirituality also draws on Chinese martial arts, (which are often unrelated to Taoism proper), American Transcendentalism, 1960s counterculture, New Age spirituality, the perennial philosophy, and alternative medicine. On the other hand, traditionally minded Taoists in the West are often either ethnically Chinese or generally assume some level of sinicization, especially the adoption of Chinese language and culture. This is because, for most traditional Taoists, the religion is not seen as separate from Chinese ethnicity and culture. As such, most Western convert Taoist groups are led either by Chinese teachers or by teachers who studied with Chinese teachers. Some prominent Western Taoist associations include: Asociación de Taoism de España,[clarification needed] Association Francaise Daoiste, British Daoist Association, Daoist Foundation (San Diego, California), American Taoist and Buddhist Association (New York), Ching Chung Taoist Association (San Francisco), Universal Society of the Integral Way (Ni Hua-Ching), and Sociedade Taoista do Brasil. Particularly popular in the West are groups that focus on internal martial arts like tai chi, as well as qigong and meditation. A smaller set of groups also focus around internal alchemy, such as Mantak Chia's Healing Tao. While traditional Taoism initially arrived in the West through Chinese immigrants, more recently, Western run Taoist temples have also appeared, such as the Taoist Sanctuary in San Diego and the Dayuan Circle in San Francisco. Kohn notes that all of these centers...
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  • 09 - Early modern Taoism.

    09 - Early modern Taoism.
    2026/04/22
    Early modern Taoism.
    During the 19th and 20th centuries, Taoism suffered much destruction as a result of religious persecution and numerous wars and conflicts that beset China in the so-called century of humiliation. This period of persecution was caused by numerous factors including Confucian prejudices, anti-traditional Chinese modernist ideologies, European and Japanese colonialism, and Christian missionary activity. By the 20th century, only one complete copy of the Daozang survived intact, stored at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. A key Taoist figure during this period was Chen Yingning (1880–1969). He was a key member of the early Chinese Taoist Association and wrote numerous books promoting Taoist practice.
    During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), many Taoist priests were laicized and sent to work camps, and many Taoist sites and temples were destroyed or converted to secular use. This period saw an exodus of Taoists out of China. They immigrated to Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and to Europe and North America. Thus, the communist repression had the consequence of making Taoism a world religion by disseminating Taoists throughout the world.
    In the 1910s, Taoist doctrine about immortals and waiting until after death to live in "the dwelling of the immortals" was one of the faith's most popular and influential beliefs.
    The 20th century was also a creative period for Taoism despite its many setbacks. The Taoist influenced practice of tai chi developed during this time, led by figures like Yang Chengfu and Sun Lutang. Early proponents of tai chi, like Sun Lutang, claimed that it was a Taoist internal practice created by the Taoist immortal Zhang Sanfeng (though modern scholars note that this claim lacks credible historical evidence).


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    This episode includes AI-generated content.
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    2 分
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