『Translations and Linguistic Adaptations.』のカバーアート

Translations and Linguistic Adaptations.

Translations and Linguistic Adaptations.

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 Translations and Linguistic Adaptations. Ancient Versions. The ancient versions of the Torah encompass early translations into Greek and Aramaic, produced to serve Jewish communities in the Hellenistic diaspora where proficiency in Hebrew had declined among Aramaic- and Greek-speaking populations. These versions emerged between the 3rd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, reflecting both linguistic adaptation and interpretive traditions, though they sometimes diverge from the Masoretic Hebrew text in wording or underlying Vorlage, as corroborated by comparisons with Dead Sea Scrolls fragments. The Septuagint, or LXX, represents the earliest known extensive translation of the Torah into Koine Greek, with the Pentateuch likely completed around 280–250 BCE in Alexandria, Egypt, under Ptolemaic rule to meet the needs of Greek-speaking Jews. Tradition attributes its origin to a commission by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BCE), involving 72 Jewish scholars from Jerusalem, as described in the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas, though modern scholarship views this as legendary embellishment on a practical communal effort. The LXX Pentateuch adheres closely to the Hebrew in many places but exhibits expansions, paraphrases, and variants—such as additional material in Exodus or differing numerical data—that suggest translation from a proto-Masoretic or related Hebrew text tradition, independent of later rabbinic standardization. Aramaic Targums, initially oral renderings recited alongside Hebrew readings in synagogues to aid comprehension amid widespread Aramaic use post-Exile, were later committed to writing; for the Torah, Targum Onkelos stands as the authoritative version, characterized by a literal, non-expansive style that avoids anthropomorphic depictions of God and incorporates subtle interpretive renderings aligned with early rabbinic exegesis. Attributed to Onkelos (or Aquilas), a proselyte associated with the 1st century CE, its core composition dates to approximately 50–150 CE, with final redaction possibly extending to the 2nd–4th centuries CE, as evidenced by linguistic features and parallels to Dead Sea Scrolls Targumic fragments like 4Q156 (Leviticus). Unlike the more paraphrastic Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, Onkelos prioritizes fidelity to the Hebrew, rendering it suitable for liturgical use and study, though it introduces etymological explanations for names and halakhic nuances. Subsequent Greek recensions addressed perceived inaccuracies in the LXX amid rising rabbinic influence and Christian adoption of the version. Aquila's translation, produced circa 130 CE by a Pontic Jewish convert under rabbinic oversight (possibly Rabbi Akiva), aimed for hyper-literal equivalence to the emerging proto-Masoretic text, transliterating Hebrew terms and altering LXX phrasing to eliminate ambiguities or Hellenisms. Theodotion's version, from the late 2nd century CE, revised the LXX with a more idiomatic Greek style, drawing closer to the Hebrew and gaining favor for books like Daniel, while Symmachus's rendering, around 200 CE by an Ebionite or Jewish scholar, emphasized elegance and clarity, often smoothing theological tensions. These "Three" were collated by Origen in his Hexapla (ca. 240 CE) for textual comparison, highlighting their role in preserving variant Torah readings, though fragments only survive in citations. The Syriac Peshitta's Old Testament, including the Torah, translated from Hebrew rather than Greek, dates to the 2nd–4th centuries CE in northern Syria (likely Edessa), serving Aramaic-speaking Christian and Jewish communities but reflecting a textual tradition akin to the Hebrew Bible with occasional harmonizations. Its antiquity and independence make it valuable for textual criticism, though less directly tied to Jewish liturgical use than the LXX or Targums. Medieval and Contemporary Translations. In the medieval period, Jewish scholars in Islamic lands produced significant translations of the Torah into Judeo-Arabic to facilitate study and exegesis among Arabic-speaking communities. Saadia Gaon (882–942 CE), a prominent Rabbanite authority, completed his Tafsir, a verse-by-verse translation of the Torah into Judeo-Arabic accompanied by philological and theological commentary, around 930 CE, emphasizing literal rendering while addressing Karaite challenges and incorporating rationalist interpretations. This work, preserved in Hebrew script, influenced subsequent Judeo-Arabic biblical scholarship and was used for both liturgical and educational purposes in regions like Iraq and Egypt. Karaite scholars, such as those in the 10th–12th centuries, also produced independent Judeo-Arabic translations, often more literal and less interpretive than Saadia's, reflecting sectarian divergences from Rabbanite tradition. In medieval Christian Europe, full translations of the Torah into vernacular languages were rare due to halakhic preferences for Hebrew study, ...
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