10 Grice & Bauman (Eng) | 2.3. Information structure; 2.3.1. Givenness
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10 Grice & Bauman (Eng) | 2.3. Information structure; 2.3.1. Givenness
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An important linguistic function of intonation is the marking of information structure, in particular (a) the expression of givenness of entities within a chunk of discourse and (b) the division of utterances into focus and background elements. In both (a) and (b) we are dealing with a continuum rather than a dichotomy: entities are not simply given or new, but may have an intermediate status between the two extremes, just as an utterance might contain elements which are focussed to a greater or lesser degree. We deal with (a) and (b) in sections 2.3.1. and 2.3.2. respectively.
2.3.1. Givenness
Degrees of givenness can be expressed through the choice of words. A clearly new discourse element can be expressed with a noun and indefinite article, as in the underlined noun phrase in (8). A clearly given one can be expressed as a pronoun, as in (9).
(8) Thomas isst einen Apfel. ‘Thomas eats an apple.’
(9) A: Was ist mit dem Apfel passiert? ‘What happened to the apple?’
B: Thomas hat ihn gegessen. ‘Thomas ate it.’
An intermediate degree of givenness can be expressed by the use of a definite article, as in (10), where the word Apfel is considered to be more given than in (8), since it refers to a specific instance of an apple which has already been introduced into the discourse in some way.
(10) Thomas isst den Apfel. ‘Thomas eats the apple.’
Of course, degrees of givenness can also be expressed through intonation. For example, the word Apfel in (11) receives a pitch accent and is thus more prominent than the same word in the second turn (B) in (12). In B’s turn Apfel is deaccented, which means that it does not receive an accent although it would be accented under default conditions, i.e. in an ‘all-new’ context such as in (11).
(11) Thomas hat Hunger. Also isst er einen APfel. ‘Thomas is hungry so he eats an apple.’
(12) A: Hast Du gesagt, dass Thomas mit einem Apfel jongliert?
B: Nein, er ISST einen Apfel.
‘Did you say Thomas is juggling with an apple? No, he’s eating an apple.’
(12) is similar to an example of Cruttenden’s (2006) for English, given in (13).
(13) A: Would you like to come to dinner tonight? I’m afraid it’s only chicken.
B: I don’t LIKE chicken.
Indian English, by contrast, does not deaccent, as in the example taken from Ladd (1996: 176), reproduced in (14).
(14) If you don’t give me that CIgarette I will have to buy a CIgarette.
Italian is similar to Indian English in that the nuclear pitch accent tends to go on the final lexical item regardless of whether it is given or not. In (15), the nuclear accent is on casa in both cases, whereas in English it would have gone on outside and inside.3
(15) É un lavoro che si fa fuori CAsa o dentro CAsa?
‘Is it a job which you do outside the HOME or inside the HOME.’
Cruttenden (2006) refers to examples such as those in Italian and Indian English as having reaccenting. Not all types of accent are equally strong, and therefore the context sometimes dictates not only whether an accent is present or not but also which type of accent may be used. The interested reader is referred to Baumann and Grice (2006), where degrees of givenness are shown to be reflected in the type of accent used. A high accent is used for new information, and a step down in pitch onto the accented syllable for information which is not totally given but, rather, accessible. No accent at all is used for totally given information.
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